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(1)During World War II, the University of Chicago ran a
toxicity laboratory for the U.S. Army Chemical Corps to conduct research in
chemical warfare. From 1948 until 1951, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) used
the facility for radiological warfare research. In 1948, the AEC worked with the
Army and the university on a research program for the laboratory that focused on
the poisonous effects of radiation exposure. Animal research was conducted on
the local effects and general toxicity of radioisotopes considered for use as
radiological warfare agents. Some coincidental work was also done with Argonne
National Laboratory on developing occupational safety practices for radiation
handling.
(2)Metallurgical Laboratory, the laboratory set
up at the University of Chicago during World War II to lead the secret research
and development of controlled nuclear fission under the Manhattan Project
(3)Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) outside Chicago;
successor to the Met Lab, operated by the University of Chicago
(4)Raymond Elliot Zirkle, an experimental
radiobiologist for the Metallurgical Project, Manhattan Engineer District, 1942–46
(5)a physiologist at Argonne National Laboratory
(6)a professor at University of Chicago and Senior
Biologist, Division of Biological and Medical Research, Argonne National
Laboratory
(7)accelerators in which particles move in spiral
paths in a constant magnetic field. The resulting beam of high-speed particles
can disintegrate atomic nuclei and may be used to produce radionuclides.
(8)incorporated with a radioactive isotope to
make a substance traceable
(9)products of the chemical processes that take place
in the body
(10)a drug approved for human use
(11)an early form of a nuclear reactor, an apparatus in
which a nuclear-fission chain reaction is sustained and controlled
(12)At Los Alamos National Laboratory, Langham led the
Health Division's Radiobiology Group from 1947 until his death in 1972.
(13)a water-soluble solid compound used to treat
tuberculosis
(14)a professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester
(Rochester, New York), site of research involving plutonium and human subjects.
Dr. Warren worked on the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge as head of the medical
section and headed an Intramedical Advisory Committee. After World War II, Dr.
Warren became dean of the University of California, Los Angeles Medical School.
(15)For the transcript of the interview with Friedell,
see DOE/EH-0466, Human Radiation
Studies: Remembering the Early Years; Oral History of Radiologist Hymer L.
Friedell, M.D., Ph.D. (July 1995).
(16)the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers organization set up
to administer the development of the atomic bomb under the top-secret Manhattan
Project
(17)the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, predecessor agency
to the U.S. Department of Energy and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC);
established January 1, 1947
(18)Leroy was dean of the University of Chicago medical
school. During the days of the Met Lab he researched the metabolism of
radionuclides by man. At Argonne Cancer Research Hospital during the 1950s and
'60s he researched lipid chemistry to understand the role of cholesterol in
atherosclerosis. In 1951 he served as biomedical director of the AEC's Operation
Greenhouse series of atomic-bomb tests. Several of the publications he
coauthored can be found in the University of Chicago section of Human
Radiation Experiments Associated with the U.S. Department of Energy and Its
Predecessors (213 pages), DOE/EH-0491, July 1995.
(19)chairman of the Department of Biochemistry,
Harvard University, and a well-known figure in that field
(20)compounds consisting of fat, waxes, or similar
substances, that are one of the chief structural components of the living cell
(21)one of three clinical facilities created by the
Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. While the AEC owned the 58-bed Chicago
hospital, the University of Chicago medical school administered and staffed the
facility. Patients were admitted on a selective basis: physicians chose persons
whose condition best suited the hospital's research and treatment applications.
The hospital admitted its first patient in January 1953. The AEC terminated its
contract with the hospital in 1974.
(22)a salt or ester of acetic acid
(23)solid fatty alcohols, including cholesterol,
derived from plants or animals
(24)Dr. Clarence C. Lushbaugh, M.D., Ph.D.—Staff
member of the Biomedical Research Group at Los Alamos National Laboratory from
1949 to 1963. Chief Scientist of the Medical and Health Sciences Division at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory, 1963 to 1975, and Chairman of the Medical and Health
Sciences Division at Oak Ridge, 1975 to 1984. For the transcript of the
interview with Lushbaugh, see DOE/EH-0453,
Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years; Oral History of
Pathologist Clarence Lushbaugh, M.D. (April 1995).
(25)Form 189 (Research Proposal), a funding document
used by the National Laboratories for preparation of short-form scientific
proposals to the Atomic Energy Commission, and later the Energy Research and
Development Administration, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and the
Department of Energy
(26)a series of two atomic bomb tests conducted at Bikini
Atoll in the Marshall Islands while a fleet of surplus U.S. and captured German
and Japanese warships were anchored in the lagoon as a test array. Many of these
ships were damaged and set ablaze by the first shot (Able), which was dropped
from a B-29 bomber and detonated in the atmosphere, July 1, 1946. Many more were
sunk by the shock waves from the second shot (Baker), detonated in the lagoon
July 15, 1946. Yields of both tests were in the 21-kiloton range. (A kiloton is
equivalent to the blast effect from 1,000 tons of high explosive.) Source for
yields: Office of External Affairs; Announced United States Nuclear Tests,
July 1945 Through December 1988; U.S. Department of Energy Nevada Operations
Office; September 1989; pp. 2–4. (hereafter referred to as U.S. Nuclear
Tests)
(27)a series of three nuclear weapon tests, detonated
between April 14 and May 14, 1948 and ranging in yield from 18 to 49 kilotons
(Source: U.S. Nuclear Tests, ibid.). The Sandstone shots were reportedly
the first proof tests conducted by the U.S. since the July 1945 Trinity test and
to have been intended to assist in developing design principles for
second-generation nuclear weapons. All three shots were detonated on
200-foot-high towers. 10,200 people participated in Operation Sandstone. Source:
Robert S. Norris, Thomas B. Cochrane, and William M. Arkin; NWD 86-2 Known
U.S. Nuclear Tests, July 1945 to 31 December 1985; February 1986;
Washington, DC; Natural Resources Defense Council (hereafter referred to as NWD
86-2).
(28)the first of three series of nuclear weapon tests
conducted at the Pacific Test Range. Operation Greenhouse included four tests
detonated between April 7 and May 24, 1951, from towers at Eniwetok Atoll in the
Marshall Islands. The only confirmed blast yield was for Shot Easy, said to be
in the 47-kiloton range (Source: U.S. Nuclear Tests). To collect data on
nuclear effects, 15,000 animals were reportedly used in the Greenhouse series.
Source: NWD 86-2.
(29)the second of three series of nuclear weapon tests
conducted at the Pacific Test Range. Operation Ivy, held at Eniwetok, involved
two tests on October 31 and November 15, 1952. Shot Mike, a surface burst that
yielded a blast in the 10.4-megaton range (U.S. Nuclear Tests), is
reported to have been the first test of an experimental thermonuclear device, in
which substantial portions of the energy released came from fusion of hydrogen
isotopes. (A megaton is the equivalent of the blast effect from one million tons
of high explosive.) Shot King, an airdrop from a B-36 bomber, had a yield in the
500-kiloton range (U.S. Nuclear Tests) and was the largest fission
weapon detonated by the U.S. Source: NWD 86-2, p. 14.
(30)the third of three series of nuclear weapon tests
conducted at the Pacific Test Range. Operation Castle involved five tests at
Bikini Atoll and one at Eniwetok detonated on barges and at the surface between
February 28 and May 13, 1954. One test fizzled, yielding a blast in the
110-kiloton range. The rest were in the 1.69- to 15-megaton range (U.S.
Nuclear Tests). Reported to have been the capstone series for the project to
develop the hydrogen bomb, begun in 1950, all of the Castle tests were planned
to produce multimegaton yields. The yields of the first two tests, Bravo and
Romeo, were well above those expected. Source NWD 86-2, p. 16.
(31)Project Sunshine was initiated by the AEC in
response to the urgent need for radiation biomedical information. The Project
began as an evaluation of the hazards associated with nuclear war and grew into
a worldwide investigation of radioactive fallout levels in the environment and
in human beings.
(32)a malignant tumor that arises from bone-forming cells
and chiefly affects the ends of long bones
(33)the development of a cancer
(34)a series of chemical compounds that scintillate when
irradiated. The use of one oxazole—terphenyl—for scintillation
counting was pioneered at Los Alamos in the '50s. Terphenyl remains a staple for
scintillation counters.
(35)a flash of light from the ionization of a phosphor
struck by an energetic photon or particle
(36)substances dissolved in a solution
(37)measuring radioactivity by registering the
number of scintillations it produces
(38)director of Oak Ridge National Laboratory's
Biology Division. Hollaender is noted several times in DOE/EH-0475, Human Radiation Studies:
Remembering the Early Years; Oral History of Health Physicist Karl Z. Morgan,
Ph.D. (June 1995).
(39)a reference to interviewer Darrell Fisher's associates
at Pacific Northwest Laboratories, in Richland, Washington, which is operated
for DOE by Battelle Memorial Institute
(40)Brookhaven National Laboratory (Long Island,
New York)
(41)Joseph Hamilton, an M.D., worked at Crocker
Laboratory, then the site of a 60-inch cyclotron that he operated to produce
radioisotopes in support of research and some medical diagnosis and treatment.
Crocker was part of the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, later renamed Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, in Berkeley, California.
(42)the use of a substance that removes heavy metals from
the body fluids and carries them to excretion (urine)
(43)that is, in the event of an emergency
(44)Ernest Carl Anderson was a physical chemist who
worked at the University of Chicago Metallurgical Laboratory during the
Manhattan Project, 1942–44, and then at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory.
Dr. Anderson received the AEC's E.O. Lawrence Award in 1966. He conducted
research in natural radiocarbon, liquid scintillation counters, low-level
radioactivity measurements, and cellular biochemistry.
(45)For the transcript of the interview with
radiobiologist Chet Richmond, Ph.D., see DOE/EH-0477
(August 1995).
(46)Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(Cambridge, Massachusetts)
(47)named for its developer, Leo D. Marinelli, a
researcher at Argonne National Laboratory
(48)For a description of 24 experiments, with references,
see "Los Alamos National Laboratory" in Human Radiation
Experiments Associated with the U.S. Department of Energy and Its Predecessors
(213 pages), DOE/EH-0491, July 1995.
(49)to have the rate of radiation emissions counted from
radionuclides inside their body, using radiation detection instruments or the
whole-body counter
(50)overactivity of the thyroid gland, resulting
in increased metabolism rate
(51)imbalances of the constituents of the blood or
bone marrow
(52)any of several cancers of the bone marrow
characterized by an abnormal increase of white blood cells in the tissues,
resulting in anemia, increased susceptibility to infection, and impaired blood
clotting
(53)a common form of arteriosclerosis in which fatty
substances deposit on the inner lining of arterial walls
(54)abnormal deposits of plaque and fibrous matter
on the inner wall of an artery
(55)labeled with tritium, a radioactive isotope of
hydrogen having an atomic weight of three
(56)a radioactive tag on biomolecules, used to study a
biological, chemical, or physical system
(57)cubic centimeters; a 40-cc sample is about 1.4
fluid ounces.
(58)HUMCO I was the first whole body radiation counter
that became operational at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1956; the
sensitivity and noninvasiveness of this new instrument permitted studies at
levels 10 to 100 times below established limits of exposure.
(59)an endocrine gland located at the base of the neck and
secreting two hormones that regulate the rates of metabolism, growth, and
development
(60)an intense magenta dye that can be measured
colorimetrically in blood samples. Rose bengal was useful because it was cleared
efficiently by the liver, just like the hormone thyroxin, which it was intended
to simulate.
(61)The scintillation counters detected virtually all
nuclear disintegrations; Geiger-Mueller detectors, by contrast, had been able to
detect only about 5 percent. Their superior sensitivity is how such counters
made it possible to reduce the radioactive dose by 90 percent or more.
(62)a clinical test of liver function using rose bengal to
measure a sequence of blood samples. It made bromsulfalein injections
unnecessary by allowing the subject to simply stick an arm into a scintillation
counter after swallowing rose bengal. Art Tamplin conceived the test; Lushbaugh
made its use practical.
(63)Unless administered by a highly skilled
phlebotomist, bromsulfalein was likely to damage blood vessels.
(64)M.A. Van Dilla and M.J. Fulwyler. "Thyroid
Metabolism in Children and Adults Using Very Small (Nanocurie) Doses of
Iodine-125 and Iodine-131."
Health Physics. Vol. 9, 1963, pp. 1,325–31.
(65)the process or method of measuring or calculating the
dose of ionizing radiation, or energy absorbed per unit mass
(66)The study's purpose was to determine the retention of
iodine in the thyroid as a function of time, with a particular interest in
radioiodine metabolism in children. Nineteen normal male and female subjects
ranging in age from 4 to 46 drank approximately 10 nanocuries each of iodine-125
and iodine-131 mixed together in water. Subsequent measurements showed that
there was little difference in radioiodine metabolism between children and
adults. The work was supported by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
(67)one billionth (1 × 10-9) of a curie
(68)Because the instruments were so sensitive,
patients were able to be given minuscule doses of the isotope.
(69)A millirem is one-thousandth of a rem. A rem is a unit
of radiation dose equivalent, or "rads times the quality factor, Q."
The limits for occupational exposure of workers to radiation range from 2 to 5
rem per year for most countries.
(70)In 1966, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) made
recommendations to the Surgeon General's Office for the creation of what are now
known as Institutional Review Boards (IRBs). IRBs review and approve medical
research involving humans.
(71)Formed in a May 1947 reorganization, the "H"
or Health Division had responsibility for a much broader range of health
activities than its predecessor, the Health Group (Group A-10). These
responsibilities included radiological safety, health physics, and industrial
health. The H Division also monitored exposures and had safety responsibility
for all weapons tests conducted by the Laboratory.
(72)Shields Warren, M.D., had been Chief Pathologist
at New England Deaconess Hospital and Professor of Pathology at Harvard Medical
School. Dr. Warren served on the first U.S. team to visit Hiroshima and Nagasaki
after they were bombed with atomic weapons and was involved in creating what
became the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission. He was the first director of the
AEC's Division of Biology and Medicine and, later, established his own cancer
research institute at New England Deaconess Hospital.
(73)In a May 1947 reorganization, the research functions
of the Health Group became the responsibility of a new group, H-4
(Radiobiology), under the direction of Wright Langham. During the late 1940s and
early 1950s, research with human subjects at Los Alamos was limited to tritium
studies. The human subjects were researchers in Group H-4. In 1949, the group's
name was changed to Bio-Medical Research. Langham headed this group until his
death in 1972. At the time of his death, H-4 had grown to 70 staff members
working in molecular biology, cellular radiobiology, mammalian biology,
biophysics, veterinary biology, and pathology.
(74)because the research would have required that the
subject receive a much larger dose
(75)a radioactive isotope of hydrogen having an atomic
weight of three. The heaviest isotope of the element hydrogen, tritium gas is
used in modern nuclear weapons.
(76)Operation Ranger was the first series of
nuclear weapon tests for which the Nevada Test Site was used. Starting with the
first test in the series with a one-kiloton weapon on January 27, 1951, a total
of five weapons were airdropped, each from a B-50 bomber. Yields ranged up to 22
kilotons (U.S. Nuclear Tests). The series is reported to have been
preparation for the May–April 1951 Greenhouse series in the Pacific.
Source: NWD 86-2, pp. 12–13.
(77)Operation Buster-Jangle was a series of seven
nuclear weapons tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site, in which nuclear
explosives were detonated between October 22, 1951 and November 29, 1951.
Ranging in yield from 1.2 kilotons to 31 kilotons (U.S. Nuclear Tests),
the tests included four airdrops and a tower, surface, and crater shot. The last
three types of tests generated large quantities of fallout because the explosion
sucked up rock, soil, and debris from the crater it created and from the
surrounding surface area. During Buster-Jangle, the first three of eight Desert
Rock troop exercises were conducted by the Department of Defense to explore
nuclear battlefield conditions and tactics. Source: NWD 86-2, p. 13.
(78)a four-engine cargo plane built by Douglas Aircraft for
the military as the C-54 Loadmaster and for civilian airlines as the DC-4
passenger plane.
(79)Carroll Tyler was a nuclear weapons test manager
at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. At the time of this exchange, Brigadier
General Kenneth D. Fields was assigned to the Armed Forces Special Weapons
Project, an antecedent of today's Defense Nuclear Agency. Later, Fields became
the director of the AEC's Division of Military Applications (DMA).
(80)The initial memorandum from Tyler to Fields,
requesting a letter releasing AEC from responsibility for military use of troops
as human subjects, is the document that was found by Dr. Petersen in the files
at Los Alamos National Laboratory. However, according to Dr. Petersen, a search
at Los Alamos has failed to turn up a reply from Fields.
(81)for example, CIC document #720376, a letter from
Fields to Tyler acknowledging Tyler's distaste for the flashblindness tests but
stressing the importance of such programs to the Department of Defense.
(82)relating to the branch of medicine dealing with
the anatomy, functions, and diseases of the eye
(83)devices that would protect the eyes of subjects,
such as bomber or fighter pilots, from the intense flash of a nuclear blast
(84)Sandia National Laboratory, based in Albuquerque,
on Kirtland Air Force Base, was then and remains today a principal research and
development facility for nuclear weapons design and nuclear weapons effects.
(85)Operation Upshot-Knothole was a series of
eleven nuclear tests, including tower and airdrop tests and one nuclear
artillery test (Shot Grable), conducted between March 17, 1953, and June 4,
1953, at the Nevada Test Site. Yields ranged from 0.2 kiloton to 61 kilotons (U.S.
Nuclear Tests). During the series, 21,000 people from four military services
participated in exercise Desert Rock V. Source: NWD 86-2, p. 15. Shot
Harry in this series, a 32-kiloton surface burst, was detonated from a tower on
May 19, 1953 and involved 900 troops in trenches 4,000 yards from ground zero.
Harry produced fallout problems off the test range that were exacerbated by
weather patterns. Source: Philip L. Fradkin; Fallout, an American Nuclear
Tragedy; 1989; Tucson; University of Arizona Press; p. 3 and pp. 102–4.
(hereafter referred to as Fallout)
(86)subjects whose eyes had become adapted to seeing
in the dark. These studies were necessary to determine the extent of acute and
chronic impairments that might affect personnel flying at night when suddenly
blinded by the flash of a nuclear explosion.
(87)Operation Teapot was an atmospheric nuclear
weapons test series at the Nevada Test Site, involving 14 shots detonated
between February 18 and May 15, 1955. With yields ranging between 1 kiloton and
43 kilotons (U.S. Nuclear Tests), the tests were part of the development
of various tactical nuclear weapons. During Operation Teapot, 8,000 Department
of Defense personnel participated in troop exercise Desert Rock VI. Source: NWD
86-2, p.16.
(88)The University of California was responsible for
managing and operating the Laboratory.
(89)diagnostic and therapeutic medical techniques
using radionuclides or radioisotopes
(90)the treatment of disease by means of toxic chemicals
that kill cells or inhibit their ability to grow and multiply
(91)Iron-59 has a half-life of 45.1 days. Unlike
iron-55, iron-59 emits beta and gamma radiation.
(92)shaped like a hexagon, a closed, six-sided figure
(93)radioactive
(94)a cylinder of sugar (sucrose) weighing about 150 pounds
that serves as a surrogate for a human being during calibration of radiological
counters. Sugar's molecular makeup (largely carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen)
absorbs ionizing radiation almost as effectively as the human body.
(95)Petersen is referring to Los Alamos National
Laboratory's participation in the Human Genome Project, a broad-scale program
sponsored by the National Institutes of Health to map the location of every gene
of all 47 human chromosomes.
(96)The SL-1 (Stationary Low-Power Reactor) was a
3-megawatt prototype military reactor that was being developed at the National
Reactor Test Site in Idaho Falls, Idaho, as a power source for remote bases. On
January 3, 1961, while a military crew of three was reconnecting control rods
for a scheduled restart of the reactor, a steam explosion occurred that killed
all three crew members. These were the first deaths caused by such a reactor
accident in the United States. For an extended discussion of the SL-1 reactor
accident, see "Fatal Worker Accident at Idaho's SL-1 Reactor (1961)"
in DOE/EH-0454, Remembering the
Early Years: Interview With Dr. George Voelz, M.D. (May 1995). For a
discussion of the recovery of the bodies, see "Investigations of
Radiological Accidents" in the Lushbaugh transcript (DOE/EH-0453).
(97)making the indicator needle swing all the way to
the high end of the scale
(98)an unexpected rapid increase in fission rate,
resulting in the reactor "going critical"—beginning a nuclear
chain reaction
(99)surgical removal of lacerated, devitalized, or
contaminated tissue
(100)decontamination
(101)the "Kelley case," December 30, 1958. For
details, see "Investigations of Radiological Accidents" in the
Lushbaugh transcript (DOE/EH-0453),
April 1995.
(102)DP West was the site of the early plutonium
chemistry labs before the CMR building was built.
(103)an industrial accident involving the chemical
processing of spent fuel. The accident was essentially identical to the Kelley
accident.
(104)General Leudecke, who was a general manager of
the AEC at that time, was deeply involved in the investigation of the accident.
(105)the AEC's Division of Military Applications
(106)Richmond left Los Alamos in 1974 to join Oak
Ridge National Laboratory as Associate Laboratory Director for Biomedical and
Environmental Sciences.
(107)Assistant Director for Research
(108)[U.S.] Energy Research and Development
Administration, predecessor agency to the Department of Energy
(109)that is, whether the lights were on in the offices
or labs of coworkers who would leave at 5:00 or 6:00 pm. There were no windows
in some of the defense-related laboratories such as Los Alamos.
(110)founder of Packard Instruments, which used
LANL's unpatented developments in scintillation spectrometry to develop a
successful commercial line of well counters. Using a well counter, a researcher
could simple place a tissue sample into the well counter, and the radiation rate
would be counted automatically.
(111)See earlier the descriptive footnote under "Nuclear
Weapons Fallout Studies (1946–54)."
(112)ibid.
(113)ibid.
(114)See earlier the descriptive footnote under "AEC
and Military Differ on the Use of Human Subjects."
(115)ibid.
(116)a series of eight nuclear weapons tests at the Nevada
Test Site detonated between April 1, 1952, and June 5, 1952. Four were
airdropped; the other four were tower shots. Yields ranged between 1 kiloton and
31 kilotons (U.S. Nuclear Tests). During the series, 10,600 troops were
present to participate in Exercise Desert Rock IV. Tumbler is reported to have
been designed to collect data on the effect of height of burst on blast
overpressure; Snapper is reported to have tested potential warhead designs and
techniques to be used in the Ivy series conducted in the Pacific between October
and November 1952. Source: NWD 86-2, p. 14. Shot Easy in the series is
reported to have produced fallout incidents as far away as Salt Lake City,
resulting in a letter of protest from the Governor of Utah to the Chairman of
the AEC. Source: Fallout, p. 101.
(117)See earlier the descriptive footnote under "AEC
and Military Differ on the Use of Human Subjects."
(118)ibid.
(119)the point on the earth directly below or at which
an atomic or hydrogen bomb explodes
(120)Normal atmospheric pressure—the pressure
exerted by the earth's atmosphere at any given point—is about 14.7 pounds
per square inch (psi). In the aftermath of a nuclear blast, this value would
rise to about 16.7 psi for hours or days.
(121)Armed Forces Research Institute
(122)a unit of radiation dose equivalent, or "rads
times the quality factor, Q"
(123)a remotely controlled, uranium-235–fueled
critical assembly reactor operated by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. Godiva
first went critical in 1967. Source: Directory of Nuclear Research Reactors;
STI/PUB/853; International Atomic Energy Agency; 1989; Vienna; p. 456 (hereafter
referred to as IAEA).
(124)a research and development program initiated by the
AEC and the U.S. Air Force in 1957 to develop nuclear rocket propulsion. The
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) replaced the Air Force as
cosponsor in 1960. AEC had responsibility for the nuclear aspects of the
program. AEC work was assigned to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory and Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory; field experimentation was conducted at Jackass Flats,
Nevada. The Kiwi series of experimental reactors was part of Project Rover. The
relatively long development lead time associated with nuclear rocket propulsion
caused the program to lose funding priority to chemical rockets in the 1960s.
Source: Linda Neuman Ezell,
NASA Historical Data Book, Vol. II: Programs and Projects 1958–1988;
National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Washington, DC; 1988; p. 473
(hereafter referred to as NASA).
(125)a series of reactor experiments related to
development of a direct-cycle nuclear rocket engine for propelling space
vehicles. A Kiwi reactor went critical in 1965 and thereafter was shut down (IAEA,
p. 788). While the program struggled on with developmental problems, most of the
funding was cut in 1963. For a detailed history, see NASA, pp. 476–88.
(126)posttest air-sampling flights through the "stem"
of the mushroom-shaped cloud produced by a nuclear detonation
(127)a twinjet U.S. Air Force reconnaissance/bomber (hence
RB), nicknamed the Intruder, that was used for air-sampling
missions in connection with some U.S. atmospheric nuclear weapon tests
(128)a plutonium-fueled critical experiment facility at
Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory
(129) a critical assembly
(130)the Nevada Test Site, where most nuclear weapon
tests within the Continental United States are conducted
(131)a series of spacecraft launched by the United States
for interplanetary exploration
(132)For the transcript of the December 20, 1994
interview with Gofman, see DOE/EH-0457,
Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years; Oral History of Dr.
John W. Gofman, M.D. (June 1995).
(133)Tamplin worked with Gofman in the Biomedical
Department of Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, where he gathered international
literature on the effects of nuclear fallout on animals and humans. Tamplin's
close work with Gofman and involvement with the human radiation research
community are discussed throughout the Gofman transcript.
(134)For a summary of these experiments and a list of
references, see "LANL-12, Gastrointestinal Passage of Radioactive Particles
Containing Manganese-54 and Uranium-235" in Human Radiation Experiments
Associated with the U.S. Department of Energy and Its Predecessors (213
pages), DOE/EH-0491, July 1995.
(135)Dr. Randolph Loveless was the director of a
hospital in Albuquerque. He was intimately involved in the clinical aspects of
health and well-being of workers involved in overpressure tests.
(136)For the transcript of the November, 11, 1994
interview with Durbin, see DOE/EH-0458,
Human Radiation Studies: Remembering the Early Years; Oral History of Dr.
Patricia Wallace Durbin, Ph.D. (June 1995).
(137)a highly communicable, potentially fatal disease that
in humans is manifested primarily in the lungs. Known as the "white death"
and more commonly as "TB," tuberculosis was common in the United
States and once was treatable only with bed rest, extending from months to
years, and surgery. Hence the need for sanatoriums that could be found
throughout the country. New drugs gradually transformed treatment of TB to an
outpatient basis. Tuberculosis had been brought progressively under control in
the United States until the late 1980s early 1990s. Then, drug-resistant strains
of tuberculosis began to emerge, in part because, during the 1980s, Federal
funding was withheld for continued research and development of new TB drug
treatments and for subsidy of early treatment of TB for the poor with drugs. As
of 1995, the reemergence of tuberculosis has advanced to the point that some
authorities have proposed reestablishing TB sanatoriums.
(138)a disease characterized by overproduction of red
blood cells
(139)See the interview with Dr. John Gofman (DOE/EH-0457) for a discussion of treatment of
polycythemia vera patients with radioactive phosphorus (32P).
(140)an opportunity to "mull again"
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